മെസപ്പൊട്ടേമിയ
മധ്യപൂർവേഷ്യയിലെ യൂഫ്രട്ടിസ്, ടൈഗ്രിസ് എന്നീ നദികൾക്കിടയിൽ സ്ഥിതിചെയ്തിരുന്ന ഭൂപ്രദേശമാണ്‌ മെസപ്പൊട്ടേമിയ. ആധുനിക ഇറാക്കിന്റെ ഭൂരിഭാഗം പ്രദേശങ്ങളും, സിറിയയുടെവടക്കു കിഴക്കൻ പ്രദേശങ്ങളും, തുർക്കിയുടെ തെക്കു കിഴക്കൻ ഭൂഭാഗങ്ങളും ഇറാന്റെ തെക്കൻ പ്രദേശങ്ങളും ഇതിൽപ്പെ‍ടുന്നു. മനുഷ്യചരിത്രത്തിലെ ഏറ്റവും പുരാതനമായ നാഗരികതകൾ ഉടലെടുത്തത് മെസപ്പൊട്ടേമിയയിലാണ്. സുമേറിയർ, ബാബിലോണിയർ, അസീറിയർ എന്നിങ്ങനെ വിവിധ ജനവിഭാഗങ്ങളുടെ സാമ്രാജ്യങ്ങളുടെ കേന്ദ്രമായിരുന്നു മെസപ്പൊട്ടേമിയ.
ഗ്രീക്കു ഭാഷയിൽ ‘മെസോ'(μέσος) എന്നാൽ ‘മധ്യം’ എന്നും ‘പൊട്ടേമിയ'(ποταμός) എന്നാൽ ‘നദി’ എന്നുമാണർത്ഥം. രണ്ടു നദികൾക്കു മദ്ധ്യത്തിലുള്ള ഭൂപ്രദേശമായതിനാലാണ്‌ ഇടയാർ എന്ന അർത്ഥമുള്ള മെസപ്പൊട്ടേമിയ എന്ന പേരു് ഈ ഭൂപ്രദേശത്തിനു് ലഭിച്ചത്. ആയിരക്കണക്കിനു വർഷങ്ങളുടെ ദൈർഘ്യമുള്ള മെസപ്പൊട്ടേമിയൻ കാലഘട്ടത്തെ പൊതുവേ രണ്ടായി തിരിക്കാം. ചരിത്രാതീതകാലമെന്നും ചരിത്രകാലമെന്നും. എഴുത്തുവിദ്യ നിലവിൽ വരുന്നതിന് മുമ്പുള്ളതാണ് ചരിത്രാതീതകാലം. അന്നത്തെ മെസപ്പൊട്ടേമിയയെ പറ്റി കാര്യമായ അറിവുകളൊന്നുമില്ല. അതിൽത്തന്നെ ബി.സി.6500 വരെയുള്ള കാലം തികച്ചും ഇരുളടഞ്ഞതാണ്.ബി.സി. 3000-നോടടുത്ത് സുമേറിയരാണ് ലോകത്തെ ആദ്യത്തെ യഥാർത്ഥ നാഗരികതകൾ വികസിപ്പിച്ചത്.
ആദ്യകാലത്ത് വളരെ ചെറിയ രാജ്യമായിരുന്നു അസീറിയ. ഇന്നത്തെ വടക്കന് ഇറാഖും തുറ്ക്കിയുടെ ഭാഗവും ചേർന്ന പ്രദേശമായിരുന്നു ഇത്. മണലാരണ്യ ദേവനായ അശൂറിന്റെ പേരിലുള്ള അശൂറ് പട്ടണമായിരുന്നു ആദ്യ തലസ്ഥാനം.
ബി.സി. 1365-ല് അശൂർബാലിറ്റ് ഒന്നാമൻ രാജാവായതോടെയാണ് അസീറിയ വളർന്ന് തുടങ്ങിയത്. അസീറിയയ്ക്കു വടക്കുള്ള ചില പ്രദേശങ്ങൾ കീഴടക്കി അദ്ദേഹം രാജ്യവിസ്തൃതി വർദ്ധിപ്പിച്ചു. മെസൊപ്പൊട്ടേമിയക്കാർ വളരെ പണ്ടു മുതലേ പഞ്ചാംഗം ഉണ്ടാക്കിയിരുന്നു. സുമേറിയക്കാരാണ് ആദ്യത്തെ പഞ്ചാംഗം ഉണ്ടാക്കിയത്. ചന്ദ്രനെഅടിസ്ഥാനമാക്കിയ ചാന്ദ്രപഞ്ചാംഗമായിരുന്നു അത്. ഈ പഞ്ചാംഗത്തിൽ 29 ഉം 30 ഉം ദിവസം വീതമുള്ള 12 മാസങ്ങളായി വർഷ‍ത്തെ വിഭജിച്ചു.കറുത്തപക്ഷത്തിനു ശേഷം ചന്ദ്രൻ ദൃശ്യമാകുന്നതോടെയാണ് ഓരോ മാസവും തുടങ്ങിയിരുന്നത്. സുമേറിയൻ പഞ്ചാംഗത്തിൽ ഒരു വറ്ഷം ആകെ 354 ദിവസങ്ങളാണ് ഉണ്ടായിരുന്നത്. ഇതു തന്നെയായിരുന്നു പഞ്ചാംഗത്തിന്റെ പ്രധാന കുഴപ്പം. ഈ പ്രശ്നം ആദ്യം പരിഹരിച്ചത് ബാബിലോണിയക്കാരായിരുന്നു. അവർ മൂന്നു വറ്ഷത്തിലൊരിക്കൽ ഒരു അധികമാസം-പതിമൂന്ന് മാസം ചേറ്ത്ത സുമേറിയൻ പഞ്ചാംഗം പരിഷ്കരിച്ചു. പിന്നീട്, കാൽഡി‍യരാണ് പഞ്ചാംഗത്തിൽ ഏഴു ദിവസങ്ങളുള്ള ആഴ്ച ക്രമീകരിച്ചത്.
Ancient India
Introudction
The ancient civilization of India grew up in a sharply demarcated sub-continent bounded on the north by the world’s largest mountain range-the chain of the Himalayas, which, with its extensions to east and west, divided India from the rest of Asia and the world.
The long sea coasts of India facilitated the growth of maritime trade and a large number of harbours were established through which trade relations with Rome, China, Malaya, South East Asian archipelago were set up. India’s centralised position in Indian Ocean is also of great strategic and economic importance.
India is a curious meeting place of diverse religions, races, manners and customs. From the point of religion, India is the home of the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in the languages of the Indian people. From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a composite population.
In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:-
- Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times.
- Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India
- Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India
- Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa
- Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa
The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.
The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around 2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux. The Mahajanapadas attracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century BC, Herodotus observed that “of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population.”
Pre Historic Period
Introduction
Earth is very old and so is the antiquity of man. The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa dating about 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had a smaller brain. Homo sapiens evolved over a period of these years about 50,000 years ago. Humans have been using stone tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into Paleolithic,Mesolithic and Neolithic age.
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Palaeolithic Age (50,000 – 1,00,000 BC)
Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern was dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were wanderers and moved from places to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks.
Mesolithic Age (10,000 – 4,000 BC)
It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characcteristic tools are microliths all made of stone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters. This age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has alo been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Mesolithic Tools : Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five centimeters long.
Paintings : At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been discovered. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found. Animals are the most frequently depicted subjects either alone or in large and small groups and shown in various poses.
Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. Dancing, running, hunting, playing games and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, gree, white and yellow were used in making these paintings.
Indus Valley Civilisation
In 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement of Sir John Marshall that his Indian aides, particularly R.D.Banerjee , discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilisation, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. That the civilisation was not confined to the limits of the Indus Valley can be understood from the finds of relics of the same civilisation at the Sutkagendor on the sea board of the south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh in the east.
Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilisation, it was believed by scholars that the history of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the pre-historic civilisation of India, that is, the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Town Planning
The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan culture is the town planning and urbanisation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or Sutkagendor were built on similar plan. To the west of each a citadel built on a high platform suggest division in society or some upper class existence. It was defended by walll and on it were construced the public buildings. Below this citadel was the town proper. Everywhere, the main streets ran from north to south and other streets ran at right angles to the main streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both sides of the streets. Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of kiln-burnt bricks. At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential houses were made of sun-dried bricks. An average house had, besides kitchen and bath, four to six living rooms. Large houses with thity rooms and staircases suggest that there were large two or three storyed buildings. Most of the houses had wells within them and a drainage system carried the waste water to the main underground drain of the steet.
The social life of the Harappans can be arranged into following categories :-
- Class : It is not proved if there existed any classes or caster as the Aryan’s verna system. Based upon the mounds we can assume that there were classes if not castes according to the occupation of the people, probably priestly class and general people.
- Dress and Oranments : As far as their dress is concerned, one cannot say anything definitely, because all information about theri dress is based on inferences arrived at from two types of materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly from the dress of status and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular among both men and women.
- Religion : Following were the highlights of the religious life of the Harappans:
- The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting in a yogic posture on a low and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction, and tow deers appear at his feet
- The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms to please fertility Goddess.
- There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of femals sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus, have been discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.
- The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and Harappa.
- Indus people who worshipped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc)
- They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection against them.
- Script : The script of the Harappans people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic but was logosyllablic writing system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from left to right and from right to left in alternate lines.
- Games : The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles our modern chess. Marbles dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro were well supplied with playthings. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of entertainment.
- Disposal of the Dead : No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead bodies yet. It is believed that the dead were either burnt completely, cremation followed by burial of ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beasts. But R-37 of Harappa suggests grave burial as a large practice.
Vedic Age
Early Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.
Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is “knowledge”, the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.
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Origin of Aryans Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar, believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a number of tribes migrated in search of pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India. By that time, they came to be known as Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.
Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the Sapta-Sindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans.
Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socio-economic context.
FOUR VEDAS |
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| Rigveda |
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| Yajurveda |
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| Atharvaveda |
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The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts – Sruti and Smriti
1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means ‘spiritual knowledge’. The Vedas are four in number – Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.
The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-
- The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed
- Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
- the Sutra period.
These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.
Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later.
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| 1. | Rigveda | Aitereya and Kaushitaki |
| 2. | Samaveda | Tandya and Jaiminiya |
| 3. | Yajurveda | Tattiriya and Satpatha |
| 4. | Atharvaveda | Gopatha |
The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe.
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It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.
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2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-
- The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)
- The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, ‘Vaiseshikha’, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
- Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
- Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number
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- Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.
- Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars
- Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.
- Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of ‘Nyaya’ and ‘Mimansa’ – the ‘Dharma Sutras’ the ‘Puranas’ and the ‘Tantras’
- 3. Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes the Mahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many ‘Shlokas’. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250.Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita
Ancient India
Introudction
The ancient civilization of India grew up in a sharply demarcated sub-continent bounded on the north by the world’s largest mountain range-the chain of the Himalayas, which, with its extensions to east and west, divided India from the rest of Asia and the world.
The long sea coasts of India facilitated the growth of maritime trade and a large number of harbours were established through which trade relations with Rome, China, Malaya, South East Asian archipelago were set up. India’s centralised position in Indian Ocean is also of great strategic and economic importance.
India is a curious meeting place of diverse religions, races, manners and customs. From the point of religion, India is the home of the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in the languages of the Indian people. From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a composite population.
In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:-
- Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times.
- Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India
- Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India
- Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa
- Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa
The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.
The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around 2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux. The Mahajanapadas attracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century BC, Herodotus observed that “of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population.”
Pre Historic Period
Introduction
Earth is very old and so is the antiquity of man. The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa dating about 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had a smaller brain. Homo sapiens evolved over a period of these years about 50,000 years ago. Humans have been using stone tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into Paleolithic,Mesolithic and Neolithic age.
| Evolution of Man |
|---|
|
Palaeolithic Age (50,000 – 1,00,000 BC)
Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern was dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were wanderers and moved from places to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks.
Mesolithic Age (10,000 – 4,000 BC)
It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characcteristic tools are microliths all made of stone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters. This age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has alo been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Mesolithic Tools : Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five centimeters long.
Paintings : At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been discovered. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found. Animals are the most frequently depicted subjects either alone or in large and small groups and shown in various poses.
Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. Dancing, running, hunting, playing games and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, gree, white and yellow were used in making these paintings.
Indus Valley Civilisation
In 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement of Sir John Marshall that his Indian aides, particularly R.D.Banerjee , discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilisation, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. That the civilisation was not confined to the limits of the Indus Valley can be understood from the finds of relics of the same civilisation at the Sutkagendor on the sea board of the south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh in the east.
Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilisation, it was believed by scholars that the history of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the pre-historic civilisation of India, that is, the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Town Planning
The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan culture is the town planning and urbanisation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or Sutkagendor were built on similar plan. To the west of each a citadel built on a high platform suggest division in society or some upper class existence. It was defended by walll and on it were construced the public buildings. Below this citadel was the town proper. Everywhere, the main streets ran from north to south and other streets ran at right angles to the main streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both sides of the streets. Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of kiln-burnt bricks. At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential houses were made of sun-dried bricks. An average house had, besides kitchen and bath, four to six living rooms. Large houses with thity rooms and staircases suggest that there were large two or three storyed buildings. Most of the houses had wells within them and a drainage system carried the waste water to the main underground drain of the steet.
The social life of the Harappans can be arranged into following categories :-
- Class : It is not proved if there existed any classes or caster as the Aryan’s verna system. Based upon the mounds we can assume that there were classes if not castes according to the occupation of the people, probably priestly class and general people.
- Dress and Oranments : As far as their dress is concerned, one cannot say anything definitely, because all information about theri dress is based on inferences arrived at from two types of materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly from the dress of status and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular among both men and women.
- Religion : Following were the highlights of the religious life of the Harappans:
- The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting in a yogic posture on a low and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction, and tow deers appear at his feet
- The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms to please fertility Goddess.
- There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of femals sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus, have been discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.
- The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and Harappa.
- Indus people who worshipped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc)
- They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection against them.
- Script : The script of the Harappans people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic but was logosyllablic writing system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from left to right and from right to left in alternate lines.
- Games : The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles our modern chess. Marbles dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro were well supplied with playthings. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of entertainment.
- Disposal of the Dead : No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead bodies yet. It is believed that the dead were either burnt completely, cremation followed by burial of ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beasts. But R-37 of Harappa suggests grave burial as a large practice.
Vedic Age
Early Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.
Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is “knowledge”, the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.
| Vedic Civilisation | |
|---|---|
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Origin of Aryans Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar, believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a number of tribes migrated in search of pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India. By that time, they came to be known as Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.
Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the Sapta-Sindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans.
Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socio-economic context.
FOUR VEDAS |
|---|
| Samveda |
|
| Rigveda |
|
| Yajurveda |
|
| Atharvaveda |
|
The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts – Sruti and Smriti
1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means ‘spiritual knowledge’. The Vedas are four in number – Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.
The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-
- The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed
- Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
- the Sutra period.
These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.
Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later.
| Vedas and their Brahmanas | ||
|---|---|---|
| 1. | Rigveda | Aitereya and Kaushitaki |
| 2. | Samaveda | Tandya and Jaiminiya |
| 3. | Yajurveda | Tattiriya and Satpatha |
| 4. | Atharvaveda | Gopatha |
The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe.
| Aranyaka |
|---|
|
It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.
| Upanishada |
|---|
|
2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-
- The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)
- The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, ‘Vaiseshikha’, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
- Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
- Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number
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- Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.
- Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars
- Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.
- Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of ‘Nyaya’ and ‘Mimansa’ – the ‘Dharma Sutras’ the ‘Puranas’ and the ‘Tantras’
- 3. Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes the Mahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many ‘Shlokas’. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250.Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita
Ancient India
Introudction
The ancient civilization of India grew up in a sharply demarcated sub-continent bounded on the north by the world’s largest mountain range-the chain of the Himalayas, which, with its extensions to east and west, divided India from the rest of Asia and the world.
The long sea coasts of India facilitated the growth of maritime trade and a large number of harbours were established through which trade relations with Rome, China, Malaya, South East Asian archipelago were set up. India’s centralised position in Indian Ocean is also of great strategic and economic importance.
India is a curious meeting place of diverse religions, races, manners and customs. From the point of religion, India is the home of the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in the languages of the Indian people. From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a composite population.
In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:-
- Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times.
- Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India
- Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India
- Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa
- Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa
The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.
The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around 2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux. The Mahajanapadas attracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century BC, Herodotus observed that “of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population.”
Pre Historic Period
Introduction
Earth is very old and so is the antiquity of man. The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa dating about 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had a smaller brain. Homo sapiens evolved over a period of these years about 50,000 years ago. Humans have been using stone tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into Paleolithic,Mesolithic and Neolithic age.
| Evolution of Man |
|---|
|
Palaeolithic Age (50,000 – 1,00,000 BC)
Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern was dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were wanderers and moved from places to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks.
Mesolithic Age (10,000 – 4,000 BC)
It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characcteristic tools are microliths all made of stone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters. This age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has alo been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Mesolithic Tools : Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five centimeters long.
Paintings : At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been discovered. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found. Animals are the most frequently depicted subjects either alone or in large and small groups and shown in various poses.
Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. Dancing, running, hunting, playing games and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, gree, white and yellow were used in making these paintings.
Indus Valley Civilisation
In 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement of Sir John Marshall that his Indian aides, particularly R.D.Banerjee , discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilisation, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. That the civilisation was not confined to the limits of the Indus Valley can be understood from the finds of relics of the same civilisation at the Sutkagendor on the sea board of the south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh in the east.
Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilisation, it was believed by scholars that the history of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the pre-historic civilisation of India, that is, the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Town Planning
The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan culture is the town planning and urbanisation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or Sutkagendor were built on similar plan. To the west of each a citadel built on a high platform suggest division in society or some upper class existence. It was defended by walll and on it were construced the public buildings. Below this citadel was the town proper. Everywhere, the main streets ran from north to south and other streets ran at right angles to the main streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both sides of the streets. Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of kiln-burnt bricks. At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential houses were made of sun-dried bricks. An average house had, besides kitchen and bath, four to six living rooms. Large houses with thity rooms and staircases suggest that there were large two or three storyed buildings. Most of the houses had wells within them and a drainage system carried the waste water to the main underground drain of the steet.
The social life of the Harappans can be arranged into following categories :-
- Class : It is not proved if there existed any classes or caster as the Aryan’s verna system. Based upon the mounds we can assume that there were classes if not castes according to the occupation of the people, probably priestly class and general people.
- Dress and Oranments : As far as their dress is concerned, one cannot say anything definitely, because all information about theri dress is based on inferences arrived at from two types of materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly from the dress of status and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular among both men and women.
- Religion : Following were the highlights of the religious life of the Harappans:
- The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting in a yogic posture on a low and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction, and tow deers appear at his feet
- The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms to please fertility Goddess.
- There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of femals sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus, have been discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.
- The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and Harappa.
- Indus people who worshipped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc)
- They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection against them.
- Script : The script of the Harappans people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic but was logosyllablic writing system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from left to right and from right to left in alternate lines.
- Games : The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles our modern chess. Marbles dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro were well supplied with playthings. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of entertainment.
- Disposal of the Dead : No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead bodies yet. It is believed that the dead were either burnt completely, cremation followed by burial of ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beasts. But R-37 of Harappa suggests grave burial as a large practice.
Vedic Age
Early Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.
Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is “knowledge”, the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.
| Vedic Civilisation | |
|---|---|
|
|
Origin of Aryans Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar, believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a number of tribes migrated in search of pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India. By that time, they came to be known as Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.
Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the Sapta-Sindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans.
Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socio-economic context.
FOUR VEDAS |
|---|
| Samveda |
|
| Rigveda |
|
| Yajurveda |
|
| Atharvaveda |
|
The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts – Sruti and Smriti
1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means ‘spiritual knowledge’. The Vedas are four in number – Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.
The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-
- The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed
- Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
- the Sutra period.
These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.
Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later.
| Vedas and their Brahmanas | ||
|---|---|---|
| 1. | Rigveda | Aitereya and Kaushitaki |
| 2. | Samaveda | Tandya and Jaiminiya |
| 3. | Yajurveda | Tattiriya and Satpatha |
| 4. | Atharvaveda | Gopatha |
The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe.
| Aranyaka |
|---|
|
It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.
| Upanishada |
|---|
|
2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-
- The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)
- The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, ‘Vaiseshikha’, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
- Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
- Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number
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- Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.
- Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars
- Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.
- Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of ‘Nyaya’ and ‘Mimansa’ – the ‘Dharma Sutras’ the ‘Puranas’ and the ‘Tantras’
- 3. Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes the Mahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many ‘Shlokas’. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250.Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita
Ancient India
Introudction
The ancient civilization of India grew up in a sharply demarcated sub-continent bounded on the north by the world’s largest mountain range-the chain of the Himalayas, which, with its extensions to east and west, divided India from the rest of Asia and the world.
The long sea coasts of India facilitated the growth of maritime trade and a large number of harbours were established through which trade relations with Rome, China, Malaya, South East Asian archipelago were set up. India’s centralised position in Indian Ocean is also of great strategic and economic importance.
India is a curious meeting place of diverse religions, races, manners and customs. From the point of religion, India is the home of the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in the languages of the Indian people. From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a composite population.
In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:-
- Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times.
- Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India
- Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India
- Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa
- Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa
The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.
The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around 2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux. The Mahajanapadas attracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century BC, Herodotus observed that “of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population.”
Pre Historic Period
Introduction
Earth is very old and so is the antiquity of man. The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa dating about 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had a smaller brain. Homo sapiens evolved over a period of these years about 50,000 years ago. Humans have been using stone tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into Paleolithic,Mesolithic and Neolithic age.
| Evolution of Man |
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Palaeolithic Age (50,000 – 1,00,000 BC)
Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern was dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were wanderers and moved from places to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks.
Mesolithic Age (10,000 – 4,000 BC)
It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characcteristic tools are microliths all made of stone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters. This age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has alo been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Mesolithic Tools : Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five centimeters long.
Paintings : At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been discovered. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found. Animals are the most frequently depicted subjects either alone or in large and small groups and shown in various poses.
Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. Dancing, running, hunting, playing games and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, gree, white and yellow were used in making these paintings.
Indus Valley Civilisation
In 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement of Sir John Marshall that his Indian aides, particularly R.D.Banerjee , discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilisation, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. That the civilisation was not confined to the limits of the Indus Valley can be understood from the finds of relics of the same civilisation at the Sutkagendor on the sea board of the south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh in the east.
Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilisation, it was believed by scholars that the history of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the pre-historic civilisation of India, that is, the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Town Planning
The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan culture is the town planning and urbanisation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or Sutkagendor were built on similar plan. To the west of each a citadel built on a high platform suggest division in society or some upper class existence. It was defended by walll and on it were construced the public buildings. Below this citadel was the town proper. Everywhere, the main streets ran from north to south and other streets ran at right angles to the main streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both sides of the streets. Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of kiln-burnt bricks. At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential houses were made of sun-dried bricks. An average house had, besides kitchen and bath, four to six living rooms. Large houses with thity rooms and staircases suggest that there were large two or three storyed buildings. Most of the houses had wells within them and a drainage system carried the waste water to the main underground drain of the steet.
The social life of the Harappans can be arranged into following categories :-
- Class : It is not proved if there existed any classes or caster as the Aryan’s verna system. Based upon the mounds we can assume that there were classes if not castes according to the occupation of the people, probably priestly class and general people.
- Dress and Oranments : As far as their dress is concerned, one cannot say anything definitely, because all information about theri dress is based on inferences arrived at from two types of materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly from the dress of status and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular among both men and women.
- Religion : Following were the highlights of the religious life of the Harappans:
- The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting in a yogic posture on a low and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction, and tow deers appear at his feet
- The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms to please fertility Goddess.
- There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of femals sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus, have been discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.
- The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and Harappa.
- Indus people who worshipped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc)
- They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection against them.
- Script : The script of the Harappans people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic but was logosyllablic writing system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from left to right and from right to left in alternate lines.
- Games : The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles our modern chess. Marbles dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro were well supplied with playthings. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of entertainment.
- Disposal of the Dead : No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead bodies yet. It is believed that the dead were either burnt completely, cremation followed by burial of ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beasts. But R-37 of Harappa suggests grave burial as a large practice.
Vedic Age
Early Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.
Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is “knowledge”, the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.
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Origin of Aryans Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar, believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a number of tribes migrated in search of pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India. By that time, they came to be known as Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.
Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the Sapta-Sindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans.
Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socio-economic context.
FOUR VEDAS |
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| Samveda |
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| Rigveda |
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| Yajurveda |
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| Atharvaveda |
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The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts – Sruti and Smriti
1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means ‘spiritual knowledge’. The Vedas are four in number – Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.
The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-
- The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed
- Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
- the Sutra period.
These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.
Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later.
| Vedas and their Brahmanas | ||
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| 1. | Rigveda | Aitereya and Kaushitaki |
| 2. | Samaveda | Tandya and Jaiminiya |
| 3. | Yajurveda | Tattiriya and Satpatha |
| 4. | Atharvaveda | Gopatha |
The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe.
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It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.
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2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-
- The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)
- The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, ‘Vaiseshikha’, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
- Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
- Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number
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- Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.
- Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars
- Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.
- Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of ‘Nyaya’ and ‘Mimansa’ – the ‘Dharma Sutras’ the ‘Puranas’ and the ‘Tantras’
- 3. Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes the Mahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many ‘Shlokas’. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250.Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita
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